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Investigation
and Experimentation Scientific progress is made by asking meaningful questions
and conducting careful investigations. As a basis for understanding this
concept and addressing the content in the other four strands (physics,
chemistry, biology and earth science), students should develop their own
questions and perform investigations. Students will: a. Select and use appropriate tools and
technology (such as computer-linked probes, spreadsheets, and graphing
calculators) to perform tests, collect data, analyze relationships, and
display data. b. Identify and communicate sources of
unavoidable experimental error. c. Identify possible reasons for
inconsistent results, such as sources of error or uncontrolled conditions. d. Formulate explanations by using logic
and evidence. e. Solve scientific problems by using
quadratic equations and simple trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic
functions. f. Distinguish between hypothesis and
theory as scientific terms. g. Recognize the usefulness and
limitations of models and theories as scientific representations of reality. h. Read and interpret topographic and
geologic maps. i. Analyze the locations, sequences, or
time intervals that are characteristic of natural phenomena (e.g., relative
ages of rocks, locations of planets over time, and succession of species in
an ecosystem). j. Recognize the issues of statistical
variability and the need for controlled tests. k. Recognize the cumulative nature of
scientific evidence. l. Analyze situations and solve
problems that require combining and applying concepts from more than one area
of science. m. Investigate a science-based societal
issue by researching the literature, analyzing data, and communicating the
findings. Examples of issues include irradiation of food, cloning of animals
by somatic cell nuclear transfer, choice of energy sources, and land and
water use decisions in n. Know that when an observation does
not agree with an accepted scientific theory, the observation is sometimes
mistaken or fraudulent (e.g., the Piltdown Man fossil or unidentified flying
objects) and that the theory is sometimes wrong (e.g., the Ptolemaic model of
the movement of the Sun, Moon, and planets). |
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Atomic
and Molecular Structure The periodic table displays the elements in increasing
atomic number and shows how periodicity of the physical and chemical
properties of the elements relates to atomic structure. As a basis for understanding this concept students will
know: a. how
to relate the position of an element in the periodic table to its atomic
number and atomic mass. b. how
to use the periodic table to identify metals, semimetals, nonmetals, and
halogens. c. how to use the periodic table to
identify alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and transition metals, trends
in ionization energy, electronegativity, and the
relative sizes of ions and atoms. d. how
to use the periodic table to determine the number of electrons available for
bonding. e. the
nucleus of the atom is much smaller than the atom yet contains most of its
mass. f. how to use the periodic table to
identify the lanthanide, actinide, and transactinide
elements and know that the transuranium elements
were synthesized and identified in laboratory experiments through the use of
nuclear accelerators. g. how
to relate the position of an element in the periodic table to its quantum
electron configuration and to its reactivity with other elements in the
table. h. the
experimental basis for Thomson's discovery of the electron, i. the
experimental basis for the development of the quantum theory of atomic
structure and the historical importance of the Bohr model of the atom. j that spectral lines are the result
of transitions of electrons between energy levels and that these lines
correspond to photons with a frequency related to the energy spacing between
levels by using Planck's relationship (E = hv). |
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Chemical
Bonds Biological, chemical, and physical properties of matter
result from the ability of atoms to form bonds from electrostatic forces
between electrons and protons and between atoms and molecules. As a basis for
understanding this concept students will know: a. atoms
combine to form molecules by sharing electrons to form covalent or metallic
bonds or by exchanging electrons to form ionic bonds. b. chemical
bonds between atoms in molecules such as H2, CH4, NH3,
H2CCH2, N2, Cl2, and many large
biological molecules are covalent. c. salt
crystals, such as NaCl, are repeating patterns of
positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic attraction. d. the
atoms and molecules in liquids move in a random pattern relative to one
another because the intermolecular forces are too weak to hold the atoms or
molecules in a solid form. e. how
to draw Lewis dot structures. f. how
to predict the shape of simple molecules and their polarity from Lewis dot
structures. g. how electronegativity and ionization energy relate to bond
formation. h. how to identify solids and liquids
held together by Van der Waals
forces or hydrogen bonding and relate these forces to volatility and boiling/
melting point temperatures. |
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Conservation
of Matter and Stoichiometry The conservation of atoms in chemical reactions leads to
the principle of conservation of matter and the ability to calculate the mass
of products and reactants. As a basis for understanding this concept students
will know: a. how
to describe chemical reactions by writing balanced equations. b. the
quantity one mole is set by defining one mole of carbon 12 atoms to have a
mass of exactly 12 grams. c. one mole
equals 6.02 x 1023 particles (atoms or molecules). d. how to determine the molar mass of a
molecule from its chemical formula and a table of atomic masses and how to
convert the mass of a molecular substance to moles, number of particles, or
volume of gas at standard temperature and pressure. e. how
to calculate the masses of reactants and products in a chemical reaction from
the mass of one of the reactants or products and the relevant atomic masses. f. how
to calculate percent yield in a chemical reaction. g. how
to identify reactions that involve oxidation and reduction and how to balance
oxidation-reduction reactions. |
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Gases
and Their Properties The kinetic molecular theory describes the motion of atoms
and molecules and explains the properties of gases. As a basis for understanding this concept
students will know: a. the
random motion of molecules and their collisions with a surface create the
observable pressure on that surface. b. the
random motion of molecules explains the diffusion of gases. c. how
to apply the gas laws to relations between the pressure, temperature, and
volume of any amount of an ideal gas or any mixture of ideal gases. d. the
values and meanings of standard temperature and pressure (STP). e. how
to convert between the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales. f. there
is no temperature lower than 0 Kelvin. g. the
kinetic theory of gases relates the absolute temperature of a gas to the
average kinetic energy of its molecules or atoms. h. how
to solve problems by using the ideal gas law in the form PV = nRT. i. how
to apply |
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Acids
and Bases Acids, bases, and salts are three classes of compounds
that form ions in water solutions. As
a basis for understanding this concept students will know: a. the observable properties of acids,
bases, and salt solutions. b. acids are hydrogen-ion-donating and
bases are hydrogen-ion-accepting substances. c. strong acids and bases fully
dissociate and weak acids and bases partially dissociate. d. how to use
the pH scale to characterize acid and base solutions e. the Arrhenius,
Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis acid-base definitions. f. how to calculate pH from the
hydrogen-ion concentration. g. know buffers stabilize pH in
acid-base reactions. |
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Solutions Solutions are homogenous mixtures of two or more
substances. As a basis for
understanding this concept students will know: a. the
definitions of solute and solvent. b. how
to describe the dissolving process at the molecular level by using the
concept of random molecular motion. c. how
temperature, pressure, and surface area affect the dissolving process. d. how
to calculate the concentration of a solute in terms of grams per liter, molarity, parts per million, and percent composition. e. the
relationship between the molality of a solute in a
solution and the solution's depressed freezing point or elevated boiling
point. f. how
molecules in a solution are separated or purified by the methods of
chromatography and distillation. |
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Chemical
Thermodynamics Energy is exchanged or transformed in all chemical
reactions and physical changes of matter. As a basis for understanding this
concept students will know: a. how
to describe temperature and heat flow in terms of the motion of molecules (or
atoms). b. chemical
processes can either release (exothermic) or absorb (endothermic) thermal
energy. c. energy
is released when a material condenses or freezes and is absorbed when a
material evaporates or melts. d. how to solve problems involving heat
flow and temperature changes, using known values of specific heat and latent
heat of phase change. e. how
to apply Hess's law to calculate enthalpy change in a reaction. f. how
to use the Gibbs free energy equation to determine whether a reaction would
be spontaneous. |
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Reaction
Rates Chemical reaction rates depend on factors that influence
the frequency of collision of reactant molecules. As a basis for
understanding this concept students will know: a. the
rate of reaction is the decrease in concentration of reactants or the
increase in concentration of products with time. b. how
reaction rates depend on such factors as concentration, temperature, and
pressure. c. the
role a catalyst plays in increasing the reaction rate. d. the
definition and role of activation energy in a chemical reaction. |
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Chemical
Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process at the molecular
level. As a basis for understanding this concept students will know: a. how
to use LeChatelier's principle to predict the
effect of changes in concentration, temperature, and pressure. b. equilibrium
is established when forward and reverse reaction rates are equal. c. how
to write and calculate an equilibrium constant expression for a reaction. |
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Organic
Chemistry and Biochemistry The bonding characteristics of carbon allow the formation
of many different organic molecules of varied sizes, shapes, and chemical
properties and provide the biochemical basis of life. As a basis for
understanding this concept students will know: a. large
molecules (polymers), such as proteins, nucleic acids, and starch, are formed
by repetitive combinations of simple subunits. b. the
bonding characteristics of carbon that result in the formation of a large
variety of structures ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polymers
and biological molecules. c. amino
acids are the building blocks of proteins. d. the system for naming the ten
simplest linear hydrocarbons and isomers that contain single bonds, simple
hydrocarbons with double and triple bonds, and simple molecules that contain
a benzene ring. e. how
to identify the functional groups that form the basis of alcohols, ketones, ethers, amines, esters, aldehydes,
and organic acids. f. the
R-group structure of amino acids and know how they combine to form the
polypeptide backbone structure of proteins. |
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Nuclear
Processes Nuclear processes are those in which an atomic nucleus
changes, including radioactive decay of naturally occurring and human-made
isotopes, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion. As a basis for understanding
this concept students will know: a. protons
and neutrons in the nucleus are held together by nuclear forces that overcome
the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons. b. the
energy release per gram of material is much larger in nuclear fusion or
fission reactions than in chemical reactions. The change in mass (calculated
by E = mc2) is small but significant in nuclear reactions. c. some
naturally occurring isotopes of elements are radioactive, as are isotopes
formed in nuclear reactions. d. the
three most common forms of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, and gamma) and
know how the nucleus changes in each type of decay. e. alpha,
beta, and gamma radiation produce different amounts and kinds of damage in
matter and have different penetrations. f. how
to calculate the amount of a radioactive substance remaining after an
integral number of half lives have passed. g. protons
and neutrons have substructures and consist of particles called quarks. |
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